IN TECHNOLOGY
EDUCATION
IN TECHNOLOGY
EDUCATION
CONTENTS
RATIONALE
COMPETENCIES
INFORMATION
SECTION
1.0 Defining
Cooperative Learning
2.0 The Benefits of
Cooperative Learning
2.1 Benefits to the
Learner
2.2 Benefits to the
Teacher
3.0 Class
Organization for Cooperative Learning
3.1 Small Group
3.2 Large Group
3.3 Whole-Class and
Larger Groups
4.0 Roles in
Cooperative Learning
4.1 The Role of the
Cooperative Learner
4.2 The Role of the
Cooperative Learning Teacher/Facilitator
5.0 Assessing
Cooperative Learning Experiences
SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cooperation is a life
skill; nearly every job or social relationship involves cooperating
with another individual to accomplish a shared goal. In cooperative
learning, students are organized into groups. Each group is given a
goal and the achievement of that goal often requires group members to
support each other. Cooperative learning tends to be student-
(group-) centered, whereas individual and competitive learning tend
to be teacher-centered. In a cooperative learning environment,
students help each other learn the subject matter, but they also
learn how to be a contributing member to a group.
There is more to
cooperative learning than "just having students work in groups."
Cooperative learning strategies differ based on: group size and
logistics, task specialization, inter-group competition, group
rewards, method of student evaluation, and appropriateness to a given
learning objective or situation.
Technology teachers have a unique opportunity to use cooperative learning strategies. Learning modules, which are beginning to dominate middle school technology programs, are well-suited to cooperative rather than individualistic learning. Problem solving and design can likewise be very effective if students work together toward a common goal, building on each other's ideas, expertise, and efforts. Certain tasks are just too large for a single individual and absolutely require cooperative efforts. As the technology laboratory becomes a place for integration of learning with other disciplines, it is reasonable to use cooperative learning strategies that make use of a variety of "students/experts" in different disciplines.
TASK 1.0. Describe
cooperative learning.
TASK 2.0. List
benefits of cooperative learning.
PERFORMANCE
OBJECTIVES:
2.1. List benefits of
cooperative learning for the learner.
2.2. Assess benefits
of cooperative learning for the teacher.
TASK 3.0. Analyze the
use of small, large, and whole-class cooperative learning groups.
PERFORMANCE
OBJECTIVES:
3.1. Explain the use
of small cooperative learning groups.
3.2. Explain the use
of large cooperative learning groups.
3.3. Analyze the use
of whole-class cooperative learning groups.
TASK 4.0. Explain the
student's and teacher's roles in cooperative learning.
PERFORMANCE
OBJECTIVES:
4.1. Describe the
role of the cooperative learner.
4.2. Assess the role
of the cooperative learning teacher/facilitator.
1.0 Defining
Cooperative Learning
Everyone learns
individually. Our interests and genetic make-up determine what we can
learn and how well we may learn. They also determine how well we can
apply what has been learned. Some people excel at analytical tasks,
such as determining how many gallons of paint it will take to cover
the interior walls of a room, while others are more concrete in
nature and can paint the rooms very efficiently. Not everyone has the
innate abilities to perform these tasks easily. Consequently, all
methods of instruction do not align with the learning capabilities of
each individual learner.
Accepting that people
learn individually is an important step toward improving instruction.
Either we must devote time to each learner individually or rely on
other means to assist each learner to progress. Individualized
instruction requires more human resources than are available to
schools. Consequently, many teachers rely on large group instruction.
Most students are capable of learning in large groups, but each may
experience problems with particular methods of presentation, e.g.,
individual readings, questions and answers, experiments or
projects.
However, in many work
and social activities, teams of individuals must pull together to get
tasks accomplished. Working together means cooperation. It also means
taking the talents of individuals and pooling these together to get
the job done.
This is the basis for
the theory behind cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is a
teaching strategy where teams of two or more work together on
learning tasks. This could include working together on an
electrical circuit problem (small group) to the entire class (large
group) manufacturing toys for a "Toys for Tots" program. Each member
of the team brings special talents to the group, i.e., concrete or
analytical abilities or others. Also other team members cooperate on
the achievement of the tasks and learn from each other. As a result,
students learn both academic and social skills from a cooperative
learning environment.
2.0 The Benefits
of Cooperative Learning
Society requires its
members to exhibit cooperative behavior. Success on a job often
depends on one's ability to work well with others. By fostering
social skills, cooperative learning aims to fill this social need.
Furthermore, cooperative learning techniques have numerous benefits
to both the teacher and the learner.
2.1 Benefits to
the Learner
Johnson, Johnson
& Smith (1991) synthesized over 375 studies on the effect of
cooperative, competitive and individualistic efforts on student
achievement and productivity. They found that students in cooperative
learning settings performed better than students in either
competitive or individualistic settings. They also noted that
cooperative learning "resulted in more higher-level reasoning, more
frequent generation of new ideas and solutions (i.e., process gain),
and greater transfer of what is learned within one situation to
another (i.e., group to individual transfer) than did competitive or
individualistic learning" (p. 2:12).
Based on
experimentation, Hamm and Adams (1992) drew the following conclusions
about the benefits of cooperative learning to the student:
1. Cooperative learning improves academic performance among high- and low- achieving students.
2. Minority students have made consistently favorable achievement in cooperative classes.
3. Disadvantaged students significantly benefit from collaborative learning techniques.
4. Working in mixed-ability groups doesn't stifle individual initiative.
5. Cooperative learning has positive effects on students' self-esteem, social relations, attitudes toward mainstreamed students, and race relations.
6. By teaching others, all of the students actually come to understand the material better.
7. Children's
cooperative behavior skills were shown to transfer to interaction
with peers who weren't members of the same learning teams. It also
transferred to their behavior in social situations not structured by
the teacher. (Hamm & Adams, 1992, p. 8)
Many different
cooperative learning techniques have been developed; some of these
have advantages over others, depending on the circumstances in which
they are applied. In general, cooperative learning should be viewed
in terms of its ability to both foster social skills and enhance
academic learning.
2.2 Benefits to
the Teacher
Cooperative learning
can also benefit the teacher. Hamm and Adams (1992) noted that
teachers who began using collaborative leaning "became more
cooperative in their own professional interactions and more willing
to collaborate with their peers" (p. 8).
Teachers who use cooperative learning may feel that their time is spent more effectively.
Dividing the class
into groups means the teacher has five, six or seven groups instead
of 25 to 35 individuals to make good contact with each day. In
addition there are 25 to 35 aides in the classroom. Pupils monitor
each other while creating a spirit of cooperation and helpfulness.
(Hamm & Adams, 1992, p. 15)
In addition, teachers
who try cooperative learning techniques often adopt a fresh, new
attitude toward their jobs. It can be exciting for a teacher when a
group has the freedom to generate their own ideas and to make their
own decisions. Some teachers who experiment with cooperative learning
techniques are pleasantly surprised at how well their students
perform in collaborative group settings.
While cooperative
learning requires a lot from the teacher, the teacher may begin to
feel that teaching and classroom management become easier.
Cooperative learning
can help teachers spend less time being policemen as students learn
that they are capable of validating their own values and ideas.
Teachers are freer to move about, work with small groups and interact
in a more personal manner with students. Cooperative group learning
can also be arranged so there is less paperwork for the teacher.
[Evaluating] six or eight group papers is less [work for
the teacher] than 24 or 32 individual ones. (Hamm & Adams,
1992, pp. 15-16)
As a result of
employing cooperative learning techniques, the teacher might feel
less stress. Although the teacher is still responsible for the
learning in the classroom, some of the authority is delegated to the
students. Even if a teacher uses cooperative learning on only a few
occasions, it might give a welcomed relief (to both the teacher and
the students) from the traditional instructional format.
3.0 Class
Organization for Cooperative Learning
Technology education
classes may be organized into different cooperative learning
configurations. These can include small groups, large groups, or
whole-class groups. Following is discussion regarding each
configuration.
3.1 Small
Group
Small group
cooperative learning has been used for many years in technology
education. Small groups usually consist of two to three learners. The
most typical examples of employing this strategy have been with
electronics or energy and power units of instruction. Probably this
strategy was first employed due to insufficient equipment. If a
teacher had 24 students in class and students worked two on a team,
then only twelve electrical trainers or small engines would have been
needed for instruction.
However, if you were
ever personally involved in small group cooperative instruction
(technology education or science labs), you realized that your
learning partner could also assist you. In science you or your
partner might have understood the lab experiment and could explain it
to the other team member. If you did not understand what was
happening, each of you had to pay particular attention and then both
of you used your joint abilities to solve the experiment. This was
the key to the learning activity. You had someone you could rely on
to assist you. In short, you were participating in one-on-one
tutoring. In real life, we often seek out others who understand a
particular topic to get solutions, or we work with others to find
solutions to problems.
Small Group Benefits
The benefits of small
group instruction are many. Some include reducing learning anxiety,
becoming a team player, participating in peer tutoring, and building
cooperative teams.
Reducing Learning Anxiety. Whenever each of us encounters new situations, anxiety usually results. This is not uncommon. The same can occur with materials to be learned. Graduate students fear research, since it is an unknown. Many people have anxiety when it comes to mathematics. Others fear giving speeches or writing papers.
Often this occurs
because learners are afraid to fail. As a result, anxiety sets in.
Through cooperative methods, learning anxiety can be reduced.
Learners use these techniques out of class when they have a friend
with whom they will compare answers on homework. The same can take
place in class by pairing groups of learners to work on experiments
or other problem solving activities.
When we work with
others the burden of fear is reduced. Not many people go camping
alone. So if you require students to disassemble a small engine in a
transportation unit, pairing two students to a single engine may
lessen the fear of botching the job.
Becoming a Team
Player. Life, in most situations, requires team work. For
teachers to restructure their technology education programs, they
must work together. For an athletic team to win, it takes the
combined efforts of the team members. Some great players have
participated in sports, but no one player can do it all for a
team.
It is not easy to become a team member. Trust must be developed. Abilities must also become known. If one member cannot perform adequately in certain areas, s/he must count on the other members to pull them through in the situation. Consequently, teams require leaders and those who are willing to support the team's efforts. A family works this way. Each member learns and knows which tasks they must perform. Other members count on that member to do their job and do it correctly when it needs to be accomplished, e.g., cooking, grass cutting, etc.
Small group
cooperative learning establishes mutual responsibility toward
learning. If small groups are given problems to solve or assignments
to complete, the learners will rely on each other to get the tasks
accomplished. Many times the small group divides segments of the
activity among its members. Each member knows that the whole team
relies on the individual contributions of each member. Therefore,
each member does his or her part. One example is a small group that
would build a prototype for a classroom game. One member may draw the
final plans, another writes the instructions, while a third member
gathers the components for the game. The total team could assemble
the components to complete the game.
Participating in
Peer Tutoring. Great trust and pride can develop through small
group cooperative learning. Trust comes from the ability to rely on
someone else. You trust your mother or a best friend. You can also
learn to trust others through experiences in learning. That is, one
team member can assist another team member to better understand a
task or new information. Suppose a team is to use a computer paint
program to develop a flyer. One team member may know the computer
program commands better and should instruct a partner who does not
yet have that knowledge. This sharing of knowledge is known as peer
tutoring.
Pride also can be
gained through cooperative learning. When you help bring your team
through a learning experience, you know that they appreciate your
efforts. Many times the team members will show their appreciation to
a supportive teacher.
Cooperative Team
Building. Finally small group cooperative learning can build team
cooperation. Cooperation is a learned trait. Not everyone gets along
well with others. Prejudices exist in society. Through cooperative
learning, people can learn to get along with others. This can occur
between classmates and also with those from other genders, races or
handicapping conditions. Through cooperative learning, relationships
can be nurtured.
Adolescents usually
spend a lot of their free time with friends. Usually they learn to
get along. In learning, the same team building can occur. This is an
important social aspect needed to get tasks accomplished. Each day in
business and industry, people are required to work together to get
the job done. All too often the task is too large for a single
individual to accomplish. Therefore, cooperative team building can
have its attributes in school, but also build cooperative skills that
will assist the learner later in life.
Potential Problems with Small Groups
Although there are
many benefits that can result from cooperative learning techniques,
there can be some potential problems. These can focus on attitudes or
not contributing to the fullest of an individual's ability.
In the area of
attitudes, students may not want to work with certain other students
or may not want to work in a team situation. Some students may be
looked down on by other students. They may think the student dresses
strangely, looks nerdy, or is slow, or they many just not like the
individual. They may complain to you as the teacher that they do not
want to work with this particular student. What should you do in your
role as teacher? Probably not force the students to team
together.
Another attitude
problem that you may encounter is having a student or two who do not
want to work as team members or rely on other students. They may just
like to learn by themselves or be a "loner". Again, you must analyze
the situation and then make your best professional judgement to
determine if you will require this type of student to work as a team
member. Sometimes this type of situation can be overcome by teaming
these students with their friends.
Another problem that
arises with small group teaming is that some students will not
cooperate and do their part for the team. As a result, other team
members must do the work for these students. This is very similar to
real life where some try to get-by on the merits of others. You
should probably deduct from this student's grade on the activity.
Examples of Small Groups in Technology Education
There are many
excellent situations for applying small group cooperative learning
strategies for technology education. Examples include the use of
simulator technology, conducting experiments, doing computer work,
and solving technological problems.
Since budgets are
limited, sufficient simulator equipment often does not exist for each
student to undertake certain activities on their own. Popular
simulator equipment includes Lego, MFA Electronics, and Capsula for
use in modeling and controlling model machines. Consequently, teaming
students into small groups to use this equipment allows for the
development of simulated machines, while at the same time allowing
students to interact and share ideas and also assist others with
prototyping work.
Experiments are
another excellent use for employing small group strategies. If
students are working on electronic or fluid power problems, sharing
equipment and possible answers is a benefit to cooperative
learning.
Because of the
limited number of computers and utility software available in
classes, small group instruction can also be beneficial in this area.
Computer work requires learners to develop many skills. These include
knowing commands and applying design capabilities. Through
cooperative techniques, student teams can share knowledge to get the
task accomplished.
Problem solving
activities, such as using design briefs, is another excellent area
for employing small groups of students. Again, members can use their
combined technical and analytical knowledge to develop more realistic
and detailed solutions to problems.
3.2 Large
Group
Large group
cooperative learning strategies have also been common to instruction
in technology education. A large group is usually made up of five to
seven students. Most typically, we have used such strategies in
communication and manufacturing technology classes. Through mass
production activities, we have orchestrated the class so that teams
would have a specific task which must be performed to achieve the
final outcome. If we mass produced a leisure time game, some student
teams could cut or form parts, others could assemble the
sub-components, while other students could package the product.
In the large group
cooperative strategy, we require sufficient human resources to
accomplish a larger task. This strategy is used daily in business and
industry to get our consumer products produced or to provide services
to customers. Extensive planning on the part of the teacher is
required to use large group strategies and cooperation is required of
students to produce as a team.
Large Group Benefits
There are a number of
benefits for student learning and for teachers to apply classroom
management techniques through large group cooperative learning. These
include learning to work together, understanding the work world, and
experiencing enterprising opportunities.
Learning to Work
Together. If students do not participate in organized sports or
the school band, they probably will not have many other in-school
opportunities to work as a large functional team. In business,
industry, and the military, large groups of individuals must bring
their talents together and fill vital roles to have things happen.
For instance, an appliance manufacturer must have teams that develop
new product ideas, engineer the product, develop manufacturing plans,
order materials, produce the product, and market the product to both
retailers and customers. All of these people and teams must do their
part in an organized manner for the product to become a part of the
consumer's life. Large groups of human resources must function as a
team.
The same teamwork is
required for a military operation. In an artillery unit, some people
are leaders (officers) who direct the operations. Others must know
how to set the artillery pieces in positions. Teams of soldiers must
identify targets and determine coordinates for aiming the artillery
pieces, while other team members must aim, load, and fire the
weapons. As the battle progresses, other team members must continue
to supply the munitions, while others feed and provide human comforts
for the soldiers.
Understanding the
Work World. Besides working as team members, large group
cooperative learning experiences show learners how many tasks are
accomplished in the "real" work world. This provides examples for
career evaluations and later life expectations for learners. They
must become aware of how businesses operate and what will be required
of them in their future. Today in business, total quality management
is essential for companies to be more productive and produce products
with improved quality at a lower cost. Through large group
cooperative instruction, students will experience real world
activities that require quality operations.
Experiencing
Enterprising Opportunities. A final benefit of large group
cooperative instruction is for students to experience enterprising
opportunities within the confines of the school. They can learn to
design and produce products for sale to the public. Through these
experiences, they can learn how investments work and why quality
products need to be produced and sold to make a profit. In brief,
they may learn how an economic system operates.
Potential Problems with Large Groups
If detailed planning
is not undertaken by the teacher, large group cooperative activities
can be disastrous. Much of the success or failure for this type of
learning rests with the teacher. If a product is to be mass produced,
are there enough operations to keep teams of students involved
simultaneously? Are materials available and on hand? Does the product
have a potential market? Do the students have the necessary skills to
manufacture the product? As you can imagine, your planning can make
or break this type of activity.
As with all teaching
activities, students must be excited and willing to participate. In a
large group activity, some students may not want to participate. With
large numbers of learners, it is easier for some to "get lost in the
crowd" and fail to carry out their assigned tasks. Can you monitor
the behaviors of all your students? In industry this is also a
problem. Because of the size of the operation, people can leave their
positions or hide. As a result, not all team members are as
productive as they can be.
Examples of Large Groups in Technology Education
The most common use
of large group cooperative learning is in the manufacturing activity
known as mass production or the enterprise. As discussed above, human
resources are organized for the production and distribution of a
product.
Another use of large
group instruction is in the construction technologies. A large team
may be used to construct structures such as barns or buildings. With
this type of activity, usually not all group members get to do all
tasks, however teamwork and "real world" experiences needed to
construct projects can be learned.
Large group
cooperative learning can also be used in the communication technology
program. As an example, a large team may produce a technology
education newsletter. Some or all students must write articles, take
photographs, use word processing and page layout software, and print
and assemble the newsletter. Again, a teacher's planning skills are
essential if this activity is to be accomplished in an efficient
manner.
3.3 Whole-Class
and Larger Groups
For some activities,
a teacher may choose to have a cooperative learning group comprised
of all of the students in a class. It might even be appropriate for
the teacher to form a cooperative learning group that is larger than
a class. Students in a club, such as the Technology Student
Association (TSA), can work together to accomplish goals that are
beyond the scope of ordinary classroom activities. It is also
possible to form cooperative learning groups made up of different
classes within a school. Even larger groups are possible if different
schools send cooperative learning teams to a centralized location so
they can collaborate on a shared goal, such as putting on a
technology fair.
A classroom full of
students is not necessarily a whole-class cooperative learning group.
For example, it is not cooperative learning when each student in a
class is working independently on a task, or when they compete with
one another. What makes a class of students into a cooperative
learning group is their ability to work together toward a shared
goal. The teacher delegates responsibility to the class, as a whole,
for completing an assigned task.
In general, whole-class cooperative learning groups can be effectively used for the following:
1. to support questions or student concerns;
2. to summarize and review, providing closure to other activities;
3. to allow a class to discuss, debate, and make decisions;
4. to elicit a wide range of ideas and opinions;
5. to accomplish
major tasks.
Benefits of Whole-Class Groups
There are specific
advantages to whole-class cooperative learning groups when compared
with cooperative learning groups of smaller size. Since many students
are involved, the group benefits from a wide variety of ideas,
opinions, values, and abilities. Whole-class groups require no
separate "grouping" activity and may be easier for a teacher to
monitor.
Easy to Establish
and Monitor. Whole-class groups can be quicker to establish and
easier to manage than smaller groups. The teacher's attention is not
divided among numerous groups. It can therefore be easier for a
teacher to monitor a whole-class group and keep the group on-task
than would be if the class were broken into many smaller groups.
Wide Variety of
Individuals and Ideas. Society is comprised of a wide variety of
individuals. Whole-class groups are better representations of society
than are smaller groups. For example, if only two of the twenty
students in a technology class are female, a whole-class group might
benefit from a feminine point of view, whereas assigning groups of
two to five students would result in a number of all-male groups.
Rather than
reinforcing social cliques, whole-class groups promote cooperation
among all smaller groups and, therefore, among students in general.
For example, if students are in small self-chosen groups, there might
be a tendency to select only close friends as group members. However,
if all smaller groups are required to collaborate on a project,
students will be forced to work with others outside their small,
social group.
Potential Problems With Whole-Class Groups
While there are
benefits to whole-class groups, there are also disadvantages. The
amount of active participation by each student is likely to decrease
as the size of the group increases. In very large groups, students
are likely to feel that their input is unimportant, or that what the
group is doing is inappropriate. Furthermore, students may be less
likely to feel personal identification with larger groups. Some
students who might volunteer for certain jobs in smaller groups might
not volunteer in larger groups, thinking that the amount of work
required would be excessive.
With a greater
audience, some students may be more apt to ridicule their fellow
students, while others may become too self-conscious to contribute
with the rest of the class listening to them. Conversely, those
students who have a tendency to use the attention of a class for
disruptive purposes may pose more of a problem with whole-class
groupings than they would in smaller groups.
Examples of Whole-Class and Larger Groups in Technology
There are a number of
circumstances where a teacher should consider using whole-class
cooperative learning. These may include: class-wide student concerns,
lesson closure, discussion of current events, class-wide decision
making, and activities that are too large for smaller groups.
There may be general
student questions or concerns at any time in a class. Some of these
concerns can be dealt with by having the whole class discuss and
decide the issue. For instance, the introduction to a lesson or an
instructional unit can be bewildering to some students. Introductions
tend to be teacher-centered, often with little feedback from
students. Students may have questions on the material that they are
too shy to ask. By encouraging students to interact about the content
with the teacher and with each other at intervals during the
introduction, some of the initial confusion might be quickly
resolved. Similarly, it might be helpful to have class-wide
discussions on students' concerns during a unit of study. As an
example, weekly seminars may be held to report student progress.
It may also be
appropriate to use whole-class discussion to provide closure to
cooperative learning experiences where students had been working in
smaller groups. This inter-group sharing of experiences, comments,
and questions can provide beneficial feedback to students and
teachers alike. It helps ensure that all important issues are shared
by everyone in the class and it gives credit to each smaller group in
front of the entire class.
Within the body of a
lesson, whole-class cooperative learning can be used to generate a
very wide list of ideas. With a large number of viewpoints,
controversial issues can be easier to examine in a whole-class group.
Discussions on current events in technology are especially conducive
to whole-class groups.
Another reason to
form a whole-class cooperative learning group is if the teacher
decides to have the class participate in a decision-making process.
For example, the class might debate on whether they should take a
field trip to a science museum or to a floppy disk manufacturing
plant.
One of the quickest
cooperative learning groups for the whole class is a brainstorming
session. Here, the students provide responses to a problem statement.
Rather than competing with each other, the students are encouraged,
as a class, to generate as many responses as possible. Often, an idea
mentioned by one brainstormer will cause another brainstormer to come
up with a different, but related idea. A specific example of
whole-class cooperative brainstorming is the following:
The teacher says, "We
will begin our study of transportation by brainstorming. The goal is
to list as many different responses as possible that fit a category.
After I tell you the category, I will present a common example, and
an uncommon example of a response. You will have one minute to
quietly think of responses, then the entire class will have 3 minutes
to list as many responses as possible, while I write your responses
on the board. Listen to each other; what someone else says might help
you think of a different idea. Ready? Here is the category :
'Systems that transport things.' You must name the system and
state what it transports. A common response is a car transports
people. An uncommon response is a bloodstream transports
nutrients." The teacher then gives the students one minute to
think of responses. After that minute, the students provide answers
for three minutes while the teacher writes their responses on a
chalkboard.
Another example of a
whole-class cooperative learning group is the establishment of a
manufacturing enterprise. Here, the students from a single class in
manufacturing technology form a manufacturing company. While various
students may be assigned to small groups, such as production
engineering, quality control, or packaging, all students must work
together to achieve the company's goals. All students are involved in
decision making, and all students stand to benefit from the
production activity.
In circumstances
where the class is working together toward a shared goal, but
different students are assigned to different smaller groups, it is
beneficial to encourage the various groups to present their progress
to the entire class. This gives them credit for their work while
teaching others and allowing for feedback. Competition between
classes can also be used to stimulate cooperation within a class.
This is better known as the seminar technique.
Another example of
how the whole-class group method can be employed by a technology
education class is a program exposition or fair. All class members
would work on technology activities to display at the exposition. In
addition, the class would also have to take on responsibilities such
as advertising, setting up displays and live presentations, or
providing refreshments. A planning team would organize the event and
assign and monitor tasks for individual class members and small
groups.
Cooperative learning
groups may be small, large, or whole-class groups. In addition, it is
possible to design cooperative ventures that go beyond classroom or
school boundaries. For example, a number of classes can pool their
efforts to build playground equipment for a local park. Others from
the community might be invited to participate. While this cooperative
activity is not primarily educational, all who participate can learn
from working with one another.
Within your school,
you can break down some of the artificial boundaries that separate
subject areas by collaborating with other teachers. Technology
classes should be places where learning of all subjects is integrated
into a cohesive whole. Collaborative efforts, for example between
technology classes and mathematics classes, can help achieve this
integration. In fact, a creative technology teacher can probably
envision a cooperative venture between technology classes and any
other class in the school. The world is a complex assembly of many
interrelated parts. By integrating across curricular boundaries,
teachers might be able to offer their students an education that is
more complete, where the whole is greater than the sum of the
parts.
With the support of
school administration, a technology teacher can host an inter-school
cooperative event in technology. For example, a middle school
technology teacher might send the following announcement to other
middle school technology programs in the vicinity:
Your middle school technology program is invited to participate:
Alpha-Seven: A Student-Designed Space Station Simulation
On {date}, students
from neighboring middle school technology classes will tour our space
station of the future. In order to be included, technology classes
must contribute by designing and constructing part of the space
station. There will be an initial meeting of designated student
representatives from technology classes in each school. These
representatives will coordinate the collaborative efforts of their
classes, making sure that all systems (e.g., environmental control,
communications, power) are covered and that everything fits together.
Please call {name and phone number} to reserve your program's place
in Alpha-Seven.
The success of
Alpha-Seven would hinge on the cooperation of students within their
technology classes as much as on the coordination of the different
technology classes from different schools.
4.0 Roles in
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning
techniques might not be familiar to many teachers and students. There
will be an adjustment period during which the teacher and the learner
new to cooperative learning will assimilate to this new technique.
The roles of the teacher and the learner are different in cooperative
learning than they were in a traditional classroom.
4.1 The Role of
the Cooperative Learner
By using cooperative
learning techniques, a teacher can delegate authority to groups of
students. Cooperative learners, therefore, have responsibilities that
may be new to them. In general, each member of a cooperative learning
group has the following responsibilities:
1. Each group member should make constructive contributions to the group's efforts.
2. Group members should encourage their fellow group members to contribute.
3. Group members should keep each other on task, working toward their shared goal.
4. Compromise is required from all cooperative learners.
5. Those in a
cooperative learning group should treat each other with care and
respect. They should do their best to teach and learn from each
other. They should adopt the axioms: "All for one and one for all,"
and "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts."
It can sometimes aid
cooperative learning if the different members of a cooperative
learning group have distinct jobs within that group. For example, a
different person may be assigned for each of the following jobs:
researcher, designer, production manager, production engineer,
production worker, quality control inspector, safety inspector. Jobs
vary and they are not intended to prevent any group member from
contributing in any way toward a group's effort. However, specific
jobs for students tend to keep them on task and help them each keep
track of the group's efforts.
Some students or
observers might at first be unaccustomed to and confused by
cooperative learning. They might have a notion that the teacher is
the only person in the class capable of disseminating information and
that the job of the student is only to recant the information
supplied by the teacher. Students with high achievement can become
resentful if their grades are based on fellow group members who might
lack their ability or motivation. It is the job of the student to see
the value of fellow group members and to encourage them to perform at
their highest levels.
There might be a
tendency for students to underestimate the efforts of fellow group
members. If all group members refuse to contribute more than "their
fair share," the group, as a whole, may suffer. Students should be
encouraged to each contribute "more than their fair share" to the
group.
Compromise is also
needed. Students should make every attempt to resolve interpersonal
problems within their groups. Only when this fails should students
seek out the teacher for resolution of the problems.
4.2 The Role of
the Cooperative Learning Teacher/Facilitator
On the surface, a
teacher who uses cooperative learning techniques might seem to have
less work than one who uses traditional techniques, since a good deal
of academic learning time is dedicated to students learning from
other students. On the contrary, a teacher who uses cooperative
learning assumes a number of responsibilities. These include the
following:
1. planning lessons, activities, and evaluation;
2. grouping students;
3. physical placement of students;
4. presenting and explaining the task to the students;
5. monitoring group activities and intervening when necessary;
6. helping students with social skills; and
7. evaluating
students.
It is advised that
the teacher use a wide variety of cooperative learning groupings, in
addition to individual and competitive learning. It would probably be
a mistake to have students work in the same self-selected group for a
number of activities. Instead, a teacher should place students in a
wide variety of groups of 2, 3, 4, and more students. During the
course of a semester, there is usually enough time for every student
in a class to work with every other as a pair for some activity. Many
different pairs and threesomes should also be established. At times,
students should be given the opportunity to select their own groups.
This can provide a type of support for the learner that might not be
possible with teacher-selected groups.
By grouping together
students with different capabilities, it might be possible to
significantly improve the performance of under-achievers.
Heterogeneity can lead to greater confrontation but can also provide the group with a wider range of resources. Homogeneity, on the other hand, may lead to greater intimacy/affection, but promote less variety. This effect can restrict the number of learning possibilities available to the group. (Cooper, 1979, p. 55)
Figure 1. A comparison of the behaviors used in
direct and supportive supervision (Cohen, 1972, p.97)
Direct Supervision Supportive Supervision
Lecturing and instructing Giving feedback
Telling students how to do task Redirecting group with questions
Disciplining Encouraging group to solve its own problems
Getting students back on task Extending activity
Working with one group Encouraging thinking
Recitation Managing conflict
Monitoring seatwork Observing students
In general, the
teacher should create groups that are heterogenous in regard to:
academic performance, sex, race, culture, physical ability, and
experience. However, the teacher should realize that homogenous
groupings may at times be useful to the students, academically,
socially and psychologically.
Cohen (1972) suggests
that cooperative learning teachers become accustomed to "supportive
supervision" rather than the traditional "direct supervision." As
illustrated in Figure 1, supportive supervision entails jobs
associated with facilitating the learning process.
A cooperative
learning teacher must be patient enough for the group members to
interact. Groups require a crucial amount of time before the students
begin to feel relaxed and comfortable with each other. Group time is
also required for ideas to incubate and grow. Some traditional
teachers may not be accustomed to allowing groups to have this
important time. This is not to say that the teacher should wait for
the slowest group to finish their discussions before bringing
everyone back together. On the contrary, the teacher might subtly
prompt all groups with a statement such as: "Please finish your group
work in three minutes." Conversely, some groups will tend to finish
much quicker than others. The teacher should encourage these groups
to enhance their results, elaborate, or explore other avenues or
tangents.
Probably the most
difficult aspect of cooperative learning for many teachers is to have
enough self control to let the students make their own discoveries
and solve their own problems. Some teachers are easily tempted to
intervene wherever students disagree with one another. Teacher
intervention should only be a last resort; the students should first
try to work out their conflicts on their own and with the help of
their fellow students.
As with traditional
learning, a key to successful cooperative learning is teacher
preparation. Cooperative learning activities may require more
planning than traditional lectures. The teacher must not only plan
his or her delivery of the content, it is also necessary to plan
student activities and evaluation. Timing is especially important in
dynamic cooperative learning settings where students are to
accomplish different tasks at different stations with different
partners.
5.0 Assessing
Cooperative Learning Experiences
When it comes time to
assess students and assign grades, how does one evaluate student
progress? Two major areas may be assessed. First the teacher may
assess what each individual learner accomplished. And secondly, you
may assess how well the student participated as a member of the
team.
If the students
participated in a small group cooperative learning team, did all team
members contribute equally and what was the results of their efforts?
Did they have to build a project or complete an experiment? What
quality were the results? How did the written material to support the
activity appear? If the work met the criteria for the grade of B,
assign that grade or its corresponding points. If it was A or C level
quality, assign that grade to all members of the team. This should
only be done if all members of the small group participated
equally.
In large group cooperative efforts, grades should be awarded toward individual member participation. If the student took part and achieved his/her role in the accomplishment of the activity, an appropriate grade should be assigned. In addition, tests could be given on the material learned or papers or student logs describing what they did could also be evaluated. Overall, team participation is a somewhat subjective assessment (what did you observe).
Technology teachers
should use a variety of small, large and whole-class cooperative
learning groups. However, cooperative learning is not always
appropriate; at times, the teacher should use non-cooperative
learning, where the students work individually or competitively.
Cooperative learning
may take some time to get used to. A teacher who is accustomed to
being the sole source of information and learning in the classroom
must not only allow, but should actively encourage students to help
each other and to learn from each other. The appropriate use of
cooperative learning techniques has been shown to have both academic
and social benefits to students, while also offering benefits to the
teacher. Technology education is especially well suited for
cooperative learning
Cohen, Elizabeth G.
1972. Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous
classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.
Cooper, Gary L. 1979.
Learning from others in groups - Experiential learning approaches.
London: Associated Business Press.
Hamm, Mary &
Dennis Adams. 1992. The collaborative dimensions of learning.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Company.
Johnson, David W.
& Roger T. Johnson. 1991. Learning together and alone. 3rd
edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Johnson, David W.,
Roger T. Johnson & Karl A. Smith. 1991. Active learning:
Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book
Company.